A months-long standoff between South African authorities and illegal miners trapped in an abandoned mine in the town of Steelfontein ended this week, leaving at least 78 people dead, most likely due to starvation, rights groups said.

On Thursday, South African police confirmed they had ended a rescue operation launched on Monday following a court order. Authorities said cameras sent to scan the area showed no more survivors or bodies in the multi-level mine.

A total of 246 survivors were rescued, many of whom appeared emaciated and emaciated.

Rights groups criticized the government for failing to prevent what they called a "massacre" after security officials cut off the miners' supply of food and other necessities and delayed rescue operations for weeks.

Here's what you need to know about the months-long standoff and complex rescue operation:

what happened?

Hundreds, possibly thousands, of miners suspected of illegal mining are believed to be trapped in the Steelfontein mine's vast tunnels since September after police surrounded the mine without warning and prevented supplies from entering. Network, not enough food or water.

The Stiefontein mine in the North West Province consists of multiple shafts, or entrances, located several kilometers apart underground. Police blocked some exits and claimed miners could exit through others, but activists said the entrances were so far apart that police effectively trapped the men.

Despite pleas from miners' families and community members to officials to launch a rescue operation, authorities refused. Khumbudzo Ntshavheni, minister in the presidential office, said the goal was to "drive them away". The announcement sparked criticism from human rights groups, who warned of possible mass deaths as the miners have not received food for several days.

A court order in October finally forced police to allow community members to drop off some food and use ropes to pull some miners up the mine shaft. Authorities at the time estimated the number of miners at between 350 and 400.

Community members made sporadic, slow attempts to rescue several people using ropes. In November, authorities said they would begin evaluating the possibility of using cages to assist evacuation after the bodies were hoisted up by ropes.

In January, civil rights groups sued the government after videos showed mountains of bodies piling up in mines. Recently rescued miners revealed in court petitions that conditions underground forced people to eat cockroaches and human flesh, and that some who tried to escape had fallen to their deaths.

Last week, a judge ordered police to rescue all the miners. On Monday, a specialist mining rescue company began lowering a small cage into the shaft. Two community members voluntarily walked down the shaft because police officials claimed it was unsafe.

A total of 324 people, including survivors and bodies, were recovered. Some families said they were still searching for their loved ones.

Thandeka Zinzi Tom's brother was in the mine but has not yet been found. "This is a very difficult moment for us," she told Al Jazeera as she tried to get to the scene.

What is the problem with illegal mining in South Africa?

Informal miners, known locally as "zama zama," or scammers, search for deposits of gold or other precious metals in some 6,000 formerly functioning gold mines. These sites have either been officially closed or mining has ceased because they were deemed unsafe or unfeasible. Other times, informal miners target functional mines.

This type of business has existed for decades and costs South Africa $1 billion in lost revenue every year. These activities are carried out almost entirely by poor, undocumented people from neighboring countries. So far in the Steelfontein case, officials say the majority are from Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Lesotho, with a smaller number from South Africa.

Zamazamas have a bad reputation in the country and are often viewed as criminals. Officials say the illegal trade is controlled by criminal groups that fight each other in gang wars or attack police. Often, these crime bosses also exploit miners or traffic people to force mining.

To get their hands on some gold, miners traveled thousands of kilometers into ancient and unstable shafts and used basic materials like picks and buckets to scoop out the gold ore. Often they stay underground for months, relying on the help of outside contractors who pull them up with ropes and deliver them supplies such as food, water and cigarettes.

Why doesn’t the South African government take action sooner?

South African police spokesman Artlund Matt said on Wednesday that the recorded deaths were not the fault of the police.

"Those behind these actions should be held accountable," she said.

Officials also blamed Bafilfontein Gold Mines (BGM), which owns the Steelefontein rights, saying it should have protected the mines and ensured that intruders were removed.

In September, when operations began, authorities said they would wait until all miners left the mine before arresting them. Their crackdown is part of the joint operation "Block the Loops" or "Vala Umgodi" in Zulu launched in December 2023 by police and the army.

The action includes closing mine shafts or mine entrances, cutting off outside supplies and forcing miners underground. Officials said more than 1,000 miners were removed from mines in multiple cities during the operation, and explosives, guns and more than $2 million in cash were seized.

In November, 14 miners, including a teenager, escaped from an unsealed shaft at the Stilfontein mine. The men said they traveled several hours to get there. One man told Al Jazeera at the time that the people he left behind were dying and "some are already dead". Another added that the "boss" in the shaft tried to prevent them from leaving with guns.

However, the police refused to launch a rescue operation, insisting that the escape proved that the miners were not in danger and could escape on their own. Activists noted that it took several days for some people to reach the open shafts and that many were already weakened without food and water.

What did rights groups say?

Rights groups and community members condemned the government's slow action and blamed police and government ministers for the deaths of 78 miners.

“We’re not really excited,” community activist Mzukusi Jam told Al Jazeera. "They didn't do it voluntarily, they were pressured."

Miners' rights group MACUA (Mining Affected Communities United Action) said the crisis was "a massacre, if not a genocide" because the government was "intended" to use starvation as a tool to evict miners, infringing on their rights to live.

Spokesperson Magnificent Mndebele told Al Jazeera: "The fact is that their carefully planned actions, and the way they responded to the humanitarian crisis, resulted in mass deaths."

He added that officials failed to consider underground conditions before launching Vala Umgodi, and when the facts emerged, police ignored its human rights implications while state agencies engaged in delaying tactics for two months.

The group was one of many that petitioned authorities multiple times during the months-long standoff and played a major role in securing the court order that led to this week's rescue operation.

In its petition to the court, MACUA provided testimony from recently rescued miners, who said that by October, underground conditions were so severe that some were eating toothpaste. These people added that when authorities allowed community members to bring food down, a fierce fight broke out because there was not enough food to distribute.

"We cannot be a society that allows police to contribute to people's death, starvation and dehydration, no matter what they are doing underground," Jessica Lawrence of Lawyers for Human Rights said on Wednesday.

Separately, MACUA's Mndebele accused government officials of exploiting anti-immigration sentiment already prevalent in South Africa.

"Because they are illegal miners and they are foreigners, they don't deserve any human rights - that's what the state does," he said. "Frankly, this country is xenophobic and racist."

What to do next?

Officials said the rescued miners would be treated in hospital and face trial.

Members of the Democratic Alliance (DA), the country's second-largest political party and part of the ruling coalition, have called for an inquiry into the crisis. The party was the main opposition party before the ruling African National Congress (ANC) slipped in the polls in last year's election.

On Thursday, party spokesman James Lorimer said the DA had written to President Cyril Ramaphosa calling for a "comprehensive and transparent" investigation into the "disaster". The district attorney also said the role of government agencies and mine owners and operators should be investigated.

“The DA urges President Ramaphosa to act quickly while witnesses are still present to ensure an investigation is conducted. A transparent investigation will help reveal the full scope of the crisis and prevent future tragedies of this nature. ” added Lorimer.